Laurus nobilis L.
EOL Text
Rounded Global Status Rank: GNR - Not Yet Ranked
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Uses: MEDICINE/DRUG
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Bay leaf (plural bay leaves) refers to the aromatic leaves of several plants used in cooking. These include:
- Bay laurel (Laurus nobilis, Lauraceae). Fresh or dried bay leaves are used in cooking for their distinctive flavor and fragrance. The leaves are often used to flavor soups, stews, braises and pâtés in Mediterranean cuisine. The fresh leaves are very mild and do not develop their full flavor until several weeks after picking and drying.[1]
- California bay leaf – the leaf of the California bay tree (Umbellularia californica, Lauraceae), also known as California laurel, Oregon myrtle, and pepperwood, is similar to the Mediterranean bay laurel, but has a stronger flavor.
- Indian bay leaf or malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala, Lauraceae) is somewhat similar in appearance to the leaves of bay laurel, but is culinarily quite different, having a fragrance and taste similar to cinnamon (cassia) bark, but milder.
- Indonesian bay leaf or Indonesian laurel (salam leaf, Syzygium polyanthum, Myrtaceae) is not commonly found outside of Indonesia; this herb is applied to meat and, less often vegetables.[2]
- West Indian bay leaf, the leaf of the West Indian bay tree (Pimenta racemosa, Myrtaceae), used culinarily and to produce the cologne called bay rum.
- Mexican bay leaf (Litsea glaucescens, Lauraceae).
Contents |
Taste and aroma
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This section requires expansion with: the species other than Laurus nobilis. (November 2012) |
If eaten whole, bay leaves are pungent and have a sharp, bitter taste. As with many spices and flavorings, the fragrance of the bay leaf is more noticeable than its taste. When dried, the fragrance is herbal, slightly floral, and somewhat similar to oregano and thyme. Myrcene, which is a component of many essential oils used in perfumery, can be extracted from the bay leaf. They also contain the essential oil eugenol.[3]
Uses
Bay leaves are a fixture in the cooking of many European cuisines (particularly those of the Mediterranean), as well as in the Americas. They are used in soups, stews, meat, seafood and vegetable dishes. The leaves also flavor many classic French dishes. The leaves are most often used whole (sometimes in a bouquet garni) and removed before serving (they can be abrasive in the digestive tract). Thai cuisine employs bay leaf (Thai name bai kra wan) in a few Arab-influenced dishes, notably massaman curry.[4]
In Indian and Pakistani cuisine, bay laurel leaves are sometimes used in place of Indian bay leaf, although they have a different flavor. They are most often used in rice dishes like biryani and as an ingredient in garam masala. Bay (laurel) leaves are frequently packaged as tejpatta (the Hindi term for Indian bay leaf), creating confusion between the two herbs.
Bay leaves can also be crushed or ground before cooking. Crushed bay leaves impart more of their desired fragrance than whole leaves, but are more difficult to remove, and thus they are often used in a muslin bag or tea infuser. Ground bay laurel may be substituted for whole leaves, and does not need to be removed, but it is much stronger due to the increased surface area and in some dishes the texture may not be desirable.
Bay leaves can also be scattered in a pantry to repel meal moths,[5] flies,[citation needed] roaches,[citation needed] mice,[citation needed] and silverfish.[citation needed]
Bay leaves have been used in entomology as the active ingredient in killing jars. The crushed, fresh, young leaves are put into the jar under a layer of paper. The vapours they release kill insects slowly but effectively, and keep the specimens relaxed and easy to mount. The leaves discourage the growth of molds. They are not effective for killing large beetles and similar specimens, but insects that have been killed in a cyanide killing jar can be transferred to a laurel jar to await mounting.[6] It is not clear to what extent the effect is due to cyanide released by the crushed leaves, and to what extent other volatile products are responsible.
Safety
Some members of the laurel family, as well as the unrelated but visually similar mountain laurel and cherry laurel, have leaves that are poisonous to humans and livestock. While these plants are not sold anywhere for culinary use, their visual similarity to bay leaves has led to the oft-repeated belief that bay leaves should be removed from food after cooking because they are poisonous. This is not true - bay leaves may be eaten without toxic effect. However, they remain very stiff even after thorough cooking, and if swallowed whole or in large pieces, they may pose a risk of scratching the digestive tract or even causing choking. Thus, most recipes that use bay leaves will recommend their removal after the cooking process has finished.[7]
References
- ^ "Spice Trade: Bay Leaf". Archived from the original on 12 April 2009. http://www.spice-trade.com/bay-leaf.html. Retrieved 2009-04-11.
- ^ "Spice Pages: Indonesian Bay-Leaf". http://www.uni-graz.at/~katzer/engl/Euge_pol.html. Retrieved 2009-04-11.
- ^ "Encyclopedia of Spices: Bay Leaf". Archived from the original on 16 April 2009. http://www.theepicentre.com/Spices/bay.html. Retrieved 2009-04-11.
- ^ Tan, Hugh T. W. (2005). Herbs & Spices of Thailand. Marshall Cavendish. p. 71.
- ^ "How to Repel Grain Moths with Bay Leaves". http://www.care2.com/greenliving/repel-grain-moths-with-bay-leaves.html. Retrieved 2009-04-11.
- ^ Smart, John (1963). British Museum (Natural History) Instructions for Collectors NO. 4A. Insects. London: Trustees of the British Museum.
- ^ "Straight Dope: Are Bay Leaves Poisonous?". http://www.straightdope.com/columns/read/2695/what-is-the-origin-of-the-song-theres-a-place-in-france-where-the-naked-ladies-dance. Retrieved 2009-04-11.
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Laurus nobilis is an aromatic evergreen tree or large shrub with green, glossy leaves, native to the Mediterranean region. It is one of the plants used for bay leaf seasoning in cooking. It is known as bay laurel, sweet bay, bay tree (esp. United Kingdom), true laurel, Grecian laurel,[1] laurel tree or simply laurel. Laurus nobilis figures prominently in classical Greek, Roman, and Biblical culture.
Worldwide, many other kinds of plants in diverse families are also called "bay" or "laurel", generally due to similarity of foliage or aroma to Laurus nobilis, and the full name is used for the California bay laurel (Umbellularia), also in the family Lauraceae.
Contents
Characteristics[edit]
The laurel can vary greatly in size and height, sometimes reaching 10–18 metres (33–59 ft) tall. Laurus is a genus of evergreen trees belonging to the Laurel family, Lauraceae. The genus includes three species, whose diagnostic key characters often overlap (Mabberley 1997).
The laurel is dioecious , with male and female flowers on separate plants.[2] Each flower is pale yellow-green, about 1 cm diameter, and they are borne in pairs beside a leaf. The leaves are 6–12 cm long and 2–4 cm broad, with an entire (untoothed) margin. On some leaves the margin undulates.[2] The fruit is a small, shiny black berry-like drupe about 1 cm long[2] that contains one seed.[3]
A recent study found considerable genetic diversity within L. nobilis, and that L. azorica is not genetically or morphologically distinct.[4]
Ecology[edit]
Laurus nobilis is a widespread relic of the laurel forests that originally covered much of the Mediterranean Basin when the climate of the region was more humid. With the drying of the Mediterranean during the Pliocene era, the laurel forests gradually retreated, and were replaced by the more drought-tolerant sclerophyll plant communities familiar today. Most of the last remaining laurel forests around the Mediterranean are believed to have disappeared approximately ten thousand years ago, although some remnants still persist in the mountains of southern Turkey, northern Syria, southern Spain, north-central Portugal, northern Morocco, Canary Islands and in Madeira.
Chemical constituents[edit]
The most abundant component found in laurel essential oil is 1,8-cineole, also called eucalyptol.[2] The leaves contain about 1.3% essential oils (ol. lauri folii), consisting of 45% eucalyptol, 12% other terpenes, 8-12% terpinyl acetate, 3–4% sesquiterpenes, 3% methyleugenol, and other α- and β-pinenes, phellandrene, linalool, geraniol, and terpineol.
Both essential and fatty oils are present in the fruit. The fruit is pressed and water-extracted to obtain these products. The fruit contains up to 30% fatty oils and about 1% essential oils (terpenes, sesquiterpenes, alcohols, and ketones).
Food[edit]
The plant is the source of several popular herbs and one spice used in a wide variety of recipes, particularly among Mediterranean cuisines.[2] Most commonly, the aromatic leaves are added whole to Italian pasta sauces. However, even when cooked, whole bay leaves can be sharp and abrasive enough to damage internal organs,[5] so they are typically removed from dishes before serving, unless used as a simple garnish.[6] Whole bay leaves have a long shelf life of about one year, under normal temperature and humidity.[6] Bay leaves are used almost exclusively as flavor agents during the food preparation stage;
Ground bay leaves, however, can be ingested safely and are often used in soups and stocks, as well as being a common addition to a Bloody Mary.[6] Dried laurel berries and pressed leaf oil can both be used as robust spices, and even the wood can be burnt for strong smoke flavoring.[6]
Alternative medicine[edit]
Aqueous extracts of bay laurel can also be used as astringents and even as a reasonable salve for open wounds.[7]
In massage therapy, the essential oil of bay laurel is reputed to alleviate arthritis and rheumatism, while in aromatherapy, it is used to treat earaches and high blood pressure.[8][unreliable source?] A traditional folk remedy for rashes caused by poison ivy, poison oak, and stinging nettle is a poultice soaked in boiled bay leaves.[9]
The chemical compound lauroside B isolated from Laurus nobilis is an inhibitor of human melanoma (skin cancer) cell proliferation at high concentrations in-vitro.[10]
Other uses[edit]
Bay is widely cultivated as an ornamental plant in regions with Mediterranean or oceanic climates, and as a house plant or greenhouse plant in colder regions. It is used in topiary to create single erect stems with ball-shaped, box-shaped or twisted crowns; also for low hedges. Together with a gold form, L. nobilis 'Aurea',[11] it has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.[12]
Laurel oil is a main ingredient, and the distinguishing characteristic of Aleppo soap.
Symbolism[edit]
- Europe
Bay laurel was used to fashion the laurel wreath of ancient Greece, a symbol of highest status. A wreath of bay laurels was given as the prize at the Pythian Games because the games were in honor of Apollo, and the laurel was one of his symbols.
The symbolism carried over to Roman culture, which held the laurel as a symbol of victory.[13] It is also the source of the words baccalaureate and poet laureate, as well as the expressions "assume the laurel" and "resting on one's laurels". Ovid tells the story in the Metamorphoses that laurel tree was first formed when the nymph Daphne was changed into a laurel tree because of Apollo's pursuit of her. Daphne is the Greek name for the tree.[14]
In the Bible, the laurel is often an emblem of prosperity and fame. In Christian tradition, it symbolizes the resurrection of Christ.
- East Asia
An early Chinese etiological myth for the phases of the moon involved a great forest or tree which quickly grew and lost its leaves and flowers every month. After the Sui and Tang dynasties, this was sometimes connected to a woodsman named Wu Gang, sentenced to cut at a self-repairing tree as a punishment for varying offenses. The tree was originally identified as a 桂 (guì) and described in the terms of the osmanthus (Osmanthus fragrans, now known in Chinese as the 桂花 or "gui flower"), whose blossoms are still used to flavor wine and confections for the Mid-Autumn Festival. However, in English, it is often associated with the more well-known cassia (Cinnamomum cassia, now known in Chinese as the 肉桂 or "meat gui") while, in modern Chinese, it has instead become associated with the Mediterranean laurel. By the Qing dynasty, the chengyu "pluck osmanthus in the Toad Palace" (蟾宫折桂, Chángōng zhé guì) meant passing the imperial examinations,[15][16][17] which were held around the time of the lunar festival. The similar association in Europe of laurels with victory and success led to its translation into Chinese as the 月桂 or "Moon gui".
See also[edit]
References[edit]
- ^ Brown, R.W. (1956). Composition of scientific words: A manual of methods and a lexicon of materials for the practice of logotechnics. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press.
- ^ a b c d e Vaughan, p.150.
- ^ Konstantinidou, E.; Takos, I.; Merou, T. (2008). "Desiccation and storage behavior of bay laurel (Laurus nobilis L.) seeds". European Journal of Forest Research 127 (2): 125–131. doi:10.1007/s10342-007-0189-z.
- ^ Arroyo–García, R., Martínez–Zapater, J. M.., Fernández Prieto, J. A., & Álvarez–Arbesú, R. (2001). "AFLP evaluation of genetic similarity among laurel populations (Laurus L.)". Euphytica 122: 155–164. doi:10.1023/A:1012654514381?LI=true (inactive 2015-01-14).
- ^ M. Moghtader and H. Salari (March 26, 2012). "Comparative survey on the essential oil composition from the leaves and flowers of Laurus nobilis L. from Kerman province". Journal of Ecology and the Natural Environment Vol. 4. Retrieved October 19, 2014.
- ^ a b c d Green, p.19.
- ^ Nayak, et al. (2006).
- ^ Encyclopedia of Herbs. "Bay Laurel: Laurus nobilis". AllNatural.net. Archived from the original on 19 November 2010. Retrieved 2010-12-31.
- ^ Wood, p.43.
- ^ Panza, E; Tersigni, M; Iorizzi, M; Zollo, F; De Marino, S; Festa, C; Napolitano, M; Castello, G et al. (2011). "Lauroside B, a megastigmane glycoside from Laurus nobilis (bay laurel) leaves, induces apoptosis in human melanoma cell lines by inhibiting NF-κB activation". Journal of Natural Products 74 (2): 228–33. doi:10.1021/np100688g. PMID 21188975.
- ^ "RHS Plant Selector – Laurus nobilis 'Aurea'". Royal Horticultural Society. Retrieved 21 May 2013.
- ^ "RHS Plant Selector – Laurus nobilis". Royal Horticultural Society. Retrieved 20 May 2013.
- ^ De Cleene, p.129.
- ^ Edith Hamilton, Mythology: Timeless Tales of Gods and Heroes (1942)
- ^ Brendon, Juliet & al. The Moon Year: A Record of Chinese Customs and Festivals, p. 410. Kelly & Walsh, 1927. Reprinted Routledge (Abingdon), 2011. Accessed 13 November 2013.
- ^ Zdic. "蟾宫折桂". 2013. Accessed 13 November 2013. (Chinese)
- ^ 杜近芳 [Du Jinfang]. 《红楼梦汉英习语词典》 ["A Dictionary of Chinese Idioms in the Dream of the Red Chamber"]. 2003. Accessed 13 November 2013. (English) & (Chinese)
- De Cleene, Marcel; Lejeune, Marie Claire (2003). Compendium of symbolic and ritual plants in Europe, Volume 1. Man & Culture. OCLC 482791069.
- Green, Aliza (2006). Field Guide to Herbs & Spices. Philadelphia: Quirk Books. ISBN 1-59474-082-8. Retrieved 2010-12-31.
- Nayak, S; Nalabothu, P; Sandiford, S; Bhogadi, V; Adogwa, A (2006). "Evaluation of wound healing activity of Allamanda cathartica. L. and Laurus nobilis. L. extracts on rats". BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine 6: 12. doi:10.1186/1472-6882-6-12. PMC 1456996. PMID 16597335.
- Wood, Jamie; Steinke, Lisa (2010). The Faerie's Guide to Green Magick from the Garden. New York: Random House. ISBN 1-58761-354-9. Retrieved 2010-12-31.
- Vaughan, John Griffith; Geissler, Catherine (2009). The New Oxford Book of Food Plants. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-954946-X. Retrieved 2010-12-31.
Examples of biological activity of bay laurel[edit]
- Simic, M; Kundaković, T; Kovacević, N (September 2003). "Preliminary assay on the antioxidative activity of Laurus nobilis extracts". Fitoterapia 74 (6): 613–6. doi:10.1016/S0367-326X(03)00143-6. PMID 12946729.
- Sayyah, M.; Saroukhani, G.; Peirovi, A.; Kamalinejad, M. (August 2003). "Analgesic and anti-inflammatory activity of the leaf essential oil of Laurus nobilis Linn.". Phytother Res 17 (7): 733–6. doi:10.1002/ptr.1197. PMID 12916069.
- Sayyah, M; Valizadeh, J; Kamalinejad, M (April 2002). "Anticonvulsant activity of the leaf essential oil of Laurus nobilis against pentylenetetrazole- and maximal electroshock-induced seizures". Phytomedicine 9 (3): 212–6. doi:10.1078/0944-7113-00113. PMID 12046861.
- Talmud Bavli; Pessachim 56a: Laurel extract is used as part of a mixture to assist in grafting Palm trees.
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"Notes: Western Ghats, High Altitudes, Cultivated, Native of Mediterranean Region"
United States
Origin: Exotic
Regularity: Regularly occurring
Currently: Unknown/Undetermined
Confidence: Confident
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Tamil Nadu: Nilgiri
Chile Central
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| Rights holder/Author | Pablo Gutierrez, IABIN |
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Chile Central
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| Rights holder/Author | Pablo Gutierrez, IABIN |
| Source | No source database. |
Habit: Tree