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裸子植物
Pinus sylvestris L.
EOL Text
Scots pine ranges across Europe and Asia, from the Iberian peninsular and Turkey in the south to the edge of the Siberian tundra. It has also been introduced to other countries.
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Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) is a species of pine that is native to Europe and Asia, ranging from western Europe to eastern Siberia, south to the Caucasus Mountains and Anatolia, and north to well inside the Arctic Circle in Scandinavia. In the north of its range, it occurs from sea level to 1,000 m, while in the south of its range it is a high altitude mountain tree, growing at 1,200–2,600 metres (3,900–8,500 ft) altitude. It is readily identified by its combination of fairly short, blue-green leaves and orange-red bark.[2][3][4][5]
Contents
Botany[edit]
Pinus sylvestris is an evergreen coniferous tree growing up to 35 m in height[6] and 1 m trunk diameter when mature, exceptionally to 45 metres (148 ft) tall and 1.7 metres (5 ft 7 in) trunk diameter[citation needed] and on very productive sites (in Estonia, there are some 220-year-old trees that are 46 metres (151 ft) tall in the forests of Järvselja[7]). The bark is thick, scaly dark grey-brown on the lower trunk, and thin, flaky and orange on the upper trunk and branches. The habit of the mature tree is distinctive due to its long, bare and straight trunk topped by a rounded or flat-topped mass of foliage. The lifespan is normally 150–300 years, with the oldest recorded specimens (in Sweden and Norway) just over 700 years.[2][3][4][8]
The shoots are light brown, with a spirally arranged scale-like pattern. On mature trees the leaves ('needles') are a glaucous blue-green, often darker green to dark yellow-green in winter, 2.5–5 centimetres (0.98–1.97 in) long and 1–2 millimetres (0.039–0.079 in) broad, produced in fascicles of two with a persistent grey 5–10 millimetres (0.20–0.39 in) basal sheath; on vigorous young trees the leaves can be twice as long, and occasionally occur in fascicles of three or four on the tips of strong shoots. Leaf persistence varies from two to four years in warmer climates, and up to nine years in subarctic regions. Seedlings up to one year old bear juvenile leaves; these are single (not in pairs), 2–3 cm long, flattened, with a serrated margin.[2][4][8]
The seed cones are red at pollination, then pale brown, globose and 4–8 millimetres (0.16–0.31 in) diameter in their first year, expanding to full size in their second year, pointed ovoid-conic, green, then grey-green to yellow-brown at maturity, 3–7.5 centimetres (1.2–3.0 in) long. The cone scales have a flat to pyramidal apophysis, with a small prickle on the umbo. The seeds are blackish, 3–5 mm in length with a pale brown 12–20 millimetres (0.47–0.79 in) wing; they are released when the cones open in spring 22–24 months after pollination. The pollen cones are yellow, occasionally pink, 8–12 millimetres (0.31–0.47 in) long; pollen release is in mid to late spring.[2][4][8]
Taxonomy[edit]
Over 100 Pinus sylvestris varieties have been described in the botanical literature, but only three or four are now accepted; they differ only minimally in morphology, but with more pronounced differences in genetic analysis and resin composition. Populations in westernmost Scotland are genetically distinct from those in the rest of Scotland and northern Europe, but not sufficiently to have been distinguished as a separate botanical variety. Trees in the far north of the range were formerly sometimes treated as var. lapponica, but the differences are clinal and it is not genetically distinct.[2][3][5][9][10][11][12][13][14][15]
- Pinus sylvestris var. sylvestris. The bulk of the range, from Scotland and Spain to central Siberia. Described above.
- Pinus sylvestris var. hamata Steven. The Balkans, northern Turkey, Crimea, and the Caucasus. Foliage more consistently glaucous all year, not becoming duller in winter; cones more frequently with a pyramidal apophysis.
- Pinus sylvestris var. mongolica Litv. Mongolia and adjoining parts of southern Siberia and northwestern China. Foliage duller green, shoots grey-green; leaves occasionally up to 12 cm long.
- Pinus sylvestris var. nevadensis D.H.Christ. The Sierra Nevada in southern Spain and possibly other Spanish populations (not considered distinct from var. sylvestris by all authors) Kalenicz. Ex Kom. Cones often with thicker scales, but doubtfully distinguishable on morphology.
- Pinus sylvestris var. cretacea Kalenicz. ex Kom. From border regions between Russia and Ukraine.[16]
Distribution[edit]
Scots pine is the only pine native to northern Europe, forming either pure forests or alongside Norway spruce, common juniper, silver birch, European rowan, Eurasian aspen and other hardwood species. In central and southern Europe, it occurs with numerous additional species, including European black pine, mountain pine, Macedonian pine, and Swiss pine. In the eastern part of its range, it also occurs with Siberian pine among other trees.[3][4]
British Isles[edit]
The tree spread across the British Isles after the Last Glacial Maximum. Pollen records show that pine was present locally in southern England by 9,000 years ago having entered from northeast France and that it had spread as far north as the Lake District and North Pennines 500 years later.
It was present in Ireland over 8,800 years ago but absent from Wales at that time which suggests that Scots pine in Ireland had a separate Iberian origin. Pine expanded into Scotland between 8,000 and 8,500 years ago either from an independent refuge, from Scandinavia (via ‘Doggerland’) or from Ireland. As the climate warmed it became extinct from most of the British Isles around 5,500 years ago except in Scotland and at Kielder, Northumberland.
The Irish and western Scottish populations went through a massive decline around 4,000 years ago which ultimately led to the extinction of the Irish population between 2,000 and 1,000 years ago. It was replaced by large areas of blanket bog in western Scotland and Ireland though the reasons for its decline and extinction in England are not clear, but it may have been influenced by human activities.[17]
In Britain it now occurs naturally only in Scotland, but historical and archaeological records indicate that it also occurred in Wales and England until about 300–400 years ago, becoming extinct there due to over-exploitation and grazing; it has been re-introduced in these countries. Similar historical extinction and re-introduction applies to Ireland, Denmark and the Netherlands.[4][5][8][18] Whether it truly became extinct in England is unknown; it has been speculated that it may have survived wild long enough for trees used in cultivation in England to derive from native (rather than imported) sources.[19]Shakespeare (in Richard II) was familiar with the species in the 1590s, as was Evelyn in the early 1660s (Sylva), both around the time when Scots pine was thought to become extinct in England, but when landowners were also beginning ornamental and forestry planting.[19]
The Scots pine formed much of the Caledonian Forest which once covered much of the Scottish Highland. Overcutting for timber demand, fire, overgrazing by sheep and deer, and even deliberate clearance to deter wolves have all been factors in the decline of this once great pine and birch forest. Only comparatively small areas (17,000 ha, only just over 1% of the estimated original 1,500,000 ha[citation needed]) of this ancient forest remain, the main surviving remnants being at Abernethy Forest, Glen Affric, Rothiemurchus Forest, and the Black Wood of Rannoch. Plans are currently in progress to restore at least some areas and work has started at key sites.[4][8]
Additionally, the Scots pine is the plant badge of Clan Gregor and has been proposed as the national tree of Scotland
Cultivation and uses[edit]
Scots pine is an important tree in forestry. The wood is used for pulp and sawn timber products. A seedling stand can be created by planting, sowing, or natural regeneration. Commercial plantation rotations vary between 50 and 120 years, with longer rotations in northeastern areas where growth is slower.
In Scandinavian countries, Scots pine was used for making tar in the preindustrial age. Some active tar producers still exist, but mostly the industry has ceased.[8][9] The pine has also been used as a source of rosin and turpentine.
The wood is pale brown to red-brown, and used for general construction work. It has a dry density around 470 kg/m3 (varying with growth conditions), an open porosity of 60%, a fibre saturation point of 0.25 kg/kg, and a saturation moisture content of 1.60 kg/kg.[9] Scots pine fibres are used to make the textile known as vegetable flannel,[20] which has a hemp-like appearance, but with a tighter, softer texture.[21]
Scots pine has also been widely planted in New Zealand and much of the colder regions of North America; it was one of the first trees introduced to North America, in about 1600.[22] It is listed as an invasive species in some areas there, including Ontario,[23]Michigan[24] and Wisconsin.[25] It has been widely used in the United States for the Christmas tree trade, and was one of the most popular Christmas trees from the 1950s through the 1980s. It remains popular for that usage, though it has been eclipsed in popularity, by such species as Fraser fir, Douglas-fir, and others. Despite its invasiveness in parts of eastern North America, Scots pine does not often grow well there, partly due to climate and soil differences between its native habitat and that of North America, and partly due to damage by pests and diseases; the tree often grows in a twisted, haphazard manner if not tended to (as they are in the Christmas tree trade).[3][26] Scots pines may be killed by the pine wood nematode, which causes pine wilt disease. The nematode most often attacks trees that are at least ten years old and often kills invaded trees within a few weeks.[27]
Several cultivars are grown for ornamental purposes in parks and large gardens, of which 'Beuvronensis'[28] has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.
Images[edit]
Names[edit]
In the past (before the 18th century), this species was more often known as "Scots fir" or "Scotch fir".
Other names sometimes used include Riga pine and Norway pine, and Mongolian pine for var. mongolica. "Scotch pine" is another variant of the common name, used mostly in North America.[29]
The timber from it is also called red deal or yellow deal.
Another name, although less common, is European redwood.[30]
References[edit]
- ^ Conifer Specialist Group (1998). Pinus sylvestris. 2006. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN 2006. www.iucnredlist.org. Retrieved on 12 May 2006.
- ^ a b c d e Farjon, A. (2005). Pines Drawings and Descriptions of the Genus Pinus 2nd ed. Brill ISBN 90-04-13916-8.
- ^ a b c d e Gymnosperm Database: Pinus sylvestris
- ^ a b c d e f g Trees for Life: Species profile: Scots pine
- ^ a b c Mirov, N. T. (1967). The Genus Pinus. Ronald Press.
- ^ Rushforth, Keith (1986) [1980]. Bäume [Pocket Guide to Trees] (in German) (2nd ed.). Bern: Hallwag AG. ISBN 3-444-70130-6.
- ^ Laas, Eino (2004). Okaspuud (in Estonian). Tartu: Atlex. p. 208. ISBN 9985-9489-7-1.
- ^ a b c d e f Steven, H. M., & Carlisle, A. (1959, facsimile reprint 1996). The Native Pinewoods of Scotland. Castlepoint Press.
- ^ a b c Pravdin, L. F. (1969). Scots Pine. Variation, intraspecific Taxonomy and Selection. Israel Program for Scientific Translations (originally published 1964 in Russian).
- ^ Langlet, O. (1959). A Cline or not a Cline – a Question of Scots Pine. Silvae Genetica 8: 13–22.
- ^ Kinloch, B. B., Westfall, R. D., & Forrest, G. I. (1986). Caledonian Scots Pine: Origins and Genetic Structure. New Phytologist 104: 703–729.
- ^ Szmidt, A. E., & Wang, X-R. (1993). Molecular systematics and genetic differentiation of Pinus sylvestris (L.) and P. densiflora (Sieb. et Zucc.). Theoret. Appl. Genet. 86: 159–165.
- ^ Prus-Glowacki, W., & Stephan, B. R. (1994). Genetic variation of Pinus sylvestris from Spain in Relation to Other European Populations. Silvae Genetica 43: 7–14.
- ^ Goncharenko, G. G., Silin, A. E., & Padutov, V. E. (1995). Intra- and interspecific genetic differentiation in closely related pines from Pinus subsection Sylvestres (Pinaceae) in the former Soviet Union. Pl. Syst. Evol. 194: 39–54.
- ^ Sinclair, W. T., Morman, J. D., & Ennos, R. A. (1999). The postglacial history of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) in western Europe: evidence from mitochondrial DNA variation. Molec. Ecol. 8: 83–88.
- ^ Red Book of Russia. Pinus Sylvestris L. Var. Cretacea Kalenicz. Ex Kom
- ^ Milner, Edward (2011). "Trees of Britain andIreland". Flora: 15 and 120.
- ^ Carlisle, A., & Brown, A. H. F. (1968). Biological Flora of the British Isles: Pinus sylvestris L. J. Ecol. 56: 269–307.
- ^ a b Edlin, H. L. (1970). Trees, Woods and Man, 3rd ed. Collins: New Naturalist.
- ^ "Vegetable flannel". Webster's 1913 Dictionary. Webster. Retrieved 18 August 2014.
- ^ Cole, George S. (1900). Cole's Encyclopedia of Dry Goods. Root Newspaper Association. p. 566.
- ^ Moore, G., Kershner, B., Tufts, C., Mathews, D, Nelson, G., Spellenberg, R., Thieret, J. W., Purinton, T., & Block, A. (2008). National Wildlife Federation Field Guide to Trees of North America. New York: Sterling. p. 67. ISBN 1-4027-3875-7.
- ^ "Invasive Ontario Plants". Protect Our Water and Environmental Resources. Retrieved 17 December 2011.
- ^ "Species found in Michigan". Early Detection and Distribution Mapping System. Center for Invasive Species and Ecosystem Health at the University of Georgia. Retrieved 17 December 2011.
- ^ "Terrestrial Invasives". Invasive Species. Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources. Retrieved 17 December 2011.
- ^ Fire Effects Information System: Pinus sylvestris
- ^ "Pine Wilt" (PDF). University of Missouri - Extension. Retrieved 6 November 2013.
- ^ "RHS Plant Selector - Pinus sylvestris 'Beuvronensis'". Retrieved 27 May 2013.
- ^ Germplasm Resources Information Network: Pinus sylvestris.
- ^ Timber Trade Federation
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Source | http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scots_pine&oldid=653930677 |
Trees to 40 m tall; bark red-brown, flaking; branchlets dark gray-brown; winter buds red-brown or pale to yellowish brown, ovoid to oblong-ovoid, resinous. Needles 2 per bundle, blue-green, semiorbicular in cross section, (0.5-)3-14 cm × 1-2 mm, stiff, stomatal lines present on all surfaces, vascular bundles 2, resin canals 6-8, marginal, base usually twisted, with persistent sheath. Seed cones dull yellow-brown at maturity, conical-ovoid, 3-6 cm. Apophyses broadly rhombic, flat or shortly pyramidal; umbo small, blunt or mucronate.
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Scots pine is one of only three native conifers found in the UK and our only true cone-bearing tree. Although Scots pine can trace its earliest British ancestry back to the end of the Ice Age, it is something of an anomaly in that relatively few of the trees living today are directly descended from those early colonisers. Originally forming extensive forests over most of Britain, a change in the climate to warmer temperatures some 5000 years ago favoured deciduous trees and pushed the range of the Scots pine northwards, out of most of England and Wales. In the seventeenth century, a combination of tree-felling for industrial use and the notorious Highland clearances all but eradicated the tree in northern Scotland. There was estimated to be little more than 10,000 hectares of native Scots pine forest left in Scotland by the 1970s. This tree can grow as high as 40 metres and often has a trunk that is extensively forked. The bark is reddish-brown and forms flaky plates. In common with other pines, the tree bears stiff waxy needles instead of flattened leaves. These grow in pairs from the twigs and are between five and seven centimetres long. The tree also bears its seeds in cones, small egg-shaped woody structures which appear green and resinous in their first year, later drying to produce the familiar mini-pineapple shaped pinecones from which the seeds are dispersed.
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Scots pines shed their pollen in May in copious amounts. The male pollen-producing flowers are located at the base of new shoots. The female cones grow at the tips of stronger new shoots and, once fertilised, ripen after two years. The needles are not shed each year but remain on the tree for two or even three years. Their waxy coating protects against excessive water-loss and the needles have fewer pores than the leaves of deciduous trees. Pines seal damage to their trunks and branches by producing resin; a sticky, viscose secretion that protects the tree against entry by insects and fungal spores. This resin sometimes traps unwary creatures and preserves them. When this resin becomes hard it forms amber, sometimes surviving for millions of years, and can provide a unique record of the insect life that lived in the ancient pine forests. Artists and craftsmen have also found pine a useful source of raw materials. The resin can be refined and the volatile component, turpentine, is used as a solvent. The remaining constituent, rosin, has been used to coat zinc or copper plates used in printing engraved images, and for dressing violin bows. The timber, though classified as 'softwood', is strong and used for a huge range of products, from house and boat-building to furniture, toys and railway sleepers. Once treated with preservative, it weathers well and lasts for years. Many square hectares of pine forest are planted each year to supply industry with timber. The sweet fragrance of pine has even found its way into our homes in the form of scented cleaning products!
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Mountains, river basins, dry rocky slopes; 400-1600 m.
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Habitat and Ecology
Systems
- Terrestrial
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More info for the terms: density, fern
Scots pine reproduces by seed. Sexual maturity can be reached as early
as 5 to 8 years of age; the usual range is from 10 to 15 years of age.
Scots pine continues to produce viable seed for up to 200 years. Good
seed crops are produced every 3 to 6 years, with light crops in
intervening years. Seed cones require alternating wet and dry weather
to open; seeds can be retained until early spring. Seed dispersal
distances range from 164 to 328 feet (50-100 m) from the parent, though
the maximum distance is greater than 0.6 mile (1 km) [42]. Seed quality,
germination, and establishment decrease with distance from the parent
plant [52].
Scots pine seedling establishment occurs on bare mineral soil. In
England, however, where Scots pine is invading heather (Calluna
vulgaris)-bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum) heaths, Scots pine
seedlings were found even in dense stands of bracken fern; the limiting
factor on these sites appears to be proximity to seed source, rather
than density of ground vegetation [33].
Moisture stress, in the form of repeated cycles of wetting and drying,
has a pronounced negative effect on Scots pine seed germination [40].
Seedlings establish best with adequate moisture and some shade [42].
Survival is best when seedlings are planted on microsites close to the
tops of hills, and lowest in overly moist depressions [19].
There is no naturally occurring vegetative reproduction [42].
More info for the term: root collar
Scots pine is usually managed with a shelterwood or uniform compartment
system. In the Northeast and the Great Lakes states, reproduction is
abundant on sandy sites [32].
Scots pine requires high light intensities for good growth, but has
modest nutritional demands [55]. Certain ground vegetation types are
used as site quality indicators for Scots pine in Europe [7,35].
Scots pine performance varies greatly with site and seed source
[12,39,42]. Yields for most species in Scots pine stands in Germany
were improved when shade-tolerant species (Norway spruce and European
beech [Fagus sylvatica]) were grown in the understory. Scots pine
yields, however, were slightly decreased under those conditions [2].
Scots pine growth rates decreased with decreasing acidity in greenhouse
tests; optimum seedling growth is on acidic soils [8].
Scots pine has more branches per whorl than red pine (Pinus resinosa)
or eastern white pine (P. strobus), and is thus weaker at the nodes and
subject to wind damage [42].
Scots pine is intermediate in tolerance to foliar sprays of sodium
chloride [49].
Insects and Disease: Damaging insect species on Scots pine include
pine root collar weevil, pine root tip weevil, European pine sawfly, and
others. Scleroderris canker has become a serious problem in Scots pine
plantations in many areas. Other diseases include Lophodermum
needlecast, brown spot needle disease, and western gall rust [42,43].
De grove den is de enige den die van oorsprong in Noord-Europa voorkwam. De boom kan eeuwen oud worden. De oudste grove den van Nederland groeide in Gelderland, in Wofheze. toen hij tussen de 355 en 405 jaar oud was ( hoe oud is niet precies bekend) viel hij om. Maar in het waddengebied worden grove dennen meestal al na 80-120 jaar omgehakt. Ze hebben teveel last van de zoute zeewind om veel ouder te kunnen worden. Deze boom heeft zo weinig voedsel nodig dat hij zelfs op humusloos stuifzand kan groeien. Grove dennen zie je vooral aan de beschutte landzijde van duinbossen staan.
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